The ancient origins of interaction design
I have often wondered what the first interfaces were. To explore this question, we must first define an interface and how it differs from other things we interact with. In the context of mechanical or electronic systems, an interface refers to a connection point or mechanism that allows the interaction between one or more humans with different components, devices, or systems. It enables the transfer of information, energy, or signals from one part of the system to another.
Interfaces enable us to interact with a mechanism or device where the action performed by a human operator is translated into a kinetically or informationally distinct result. An example that many of us are familiar with is a screwdriver versus an electric drill. A screwdriver is a tool used by gripping the handle with your hand, placing the tip into the head of a screw, and twisting the wrist to turn the screw. One could argue that the screwdriver’s handle is a simple interface, but the user must perform the primary action of rotationally turning the screw. This stands in contrast to the electric drill, which also has a handle and includes an interface in the form of a button. When the user squeezes the button, electricity flows from the drill’s batteries to an electric motor that produces the rotational turning action. I would argue that the electric drill has an indirect interface that translates one type of input action, squeezing a button, into a different output action, turning the screw.
It’s essential also to define why we have interfaces for anything. An interface exists for humans to use systems that reduce human effort, increase human capabilities, and/or enhance our leisure. If the system isn’t doing one of those things, there’s no reason to use it, and thus no reason for an interface. We use an electric drill instead of a screwdriver because the drill device can perform more work in a shorter period using less human effort. As we’ll see below, many of the earliest pre-industrial interfaces were designed to increase human capabilities, enabling us to build astonishing architectural marvels and convert natural processes into mechanical power. But all these inventions started with a simple tool, essentially just a stick and something to brace it against.
Interfaces, whether mechanical or software-based, serve as interaction points or communication between humans and machines. A mechanical interface is a point of interaction in the physical world, often involving tools and devices to facilitate communication or manipulation. Examples include levers, pulleys, and gears, which allow humans to exert force and work on objects. In pre-industrial times, the only user interfaces that existed were mechanical.
The Lever: A Pioneering Interface
Archimedes’ famous quote, “Give me a firm place to stand and a long enough lever, and I can move the Earth,” encapsulates a profound discovery of physics and mechanics. Given the right conditions, it emphasizes the incredible power and mechanical advantage that a simple lever can provide. Archimedes recognized that even the most colossal tasks could be achieved with a fulcrum and a long enough lever. While the quote is often seen as hyperbolic, it underscores the principle of leverage and highlights the fundamental concept that small efforts, when applied strategically, can yield remarkable results. Archimedes’ words inspire engineers, scientists, and designers, reminding us of the transformative potential inherent in the laws of physics and the creative use of tools and interfaces.
Archimedes didn’t invent the lever; he was the first to describe its mechanical principles and properties. When he was alive, levers had been used for at least 5,000 years, appearing in the design of balancing scales in ancient Mesopotamia, Egpyt, Arabia, Persia, and Armenia.
The lever, one of history’s earliest and most fundamental machines, has long been celebrated for enabling humans to manipulate their environment. The lever’s interface is straightforward yet profoundly effective: a rigid bar pivoting around a fulcrum. With the lever and a comfortable, user-friendly handle, humans could exert force to lift heavy objects, move loads, and perform work more efficiently. This pre-industrial marvel highlights the usability lesson that effective interfaces should be intuitive, requiring minimal effort and offering a substantial mechanical advantage.
The lever’s ease of use was instrumental in a wide range of pre-industrial applications, from lifting stones for construction to facilitating the operation of early agricultural tools. The simplicity of the lever’s interface ensured that individuals with varying levels of expertise could harness its power, making it a universally accessible technology. The lever is likely humanity’s first interface, discovered independently by nearly every culture on every continent. It enabled the invention of countless other tools and machines and accelerated the development of civilizations.
Ancient Egyptian interfaces
The ancient Egyptians, renowned for their architectural marvels such as the Great Pyramid of Giza, the Temple of Karnak, and the Temple of Hatshepsut, were masters of utilizing ingenious mechanical interfaces. Despite the absence of modern machinery, their remarkable constructions hinged on a series of fundamental mechanical interfaces, each meticulously designed to address the challenges of their colossal projects.
Key among these mechanical interfaces were the rollers and sleds. These humble devices facilitated the transportation of massive stone blocks with remarkable efficiency. When lubricated with water to reduce friction, sleds on wooden rollers allowed workers to move these colossal stones quickly. The interface was straightforward but brilliantly effective, with ropes serving as the interface to guide the sleds to their destinations.
The principle of leverage, a fundamental mechanical concept, was harnessed with remarkable sophistication. Workers skillfully employed simple levers and wooden beams to lift and position the enormous stone blocks. With the strategic placement of fulcrums that could be adjusted to any size block, the interface allowed upward force application, enabling precise stone placement and alignment.
Counterweight systems further showcased the Egyptians’ mechanical prowess. These systems, often incorporating sandbags or stones, aided in lifting heavy stone objects. By creating pulley and balance systems with counterweights, the interface was optimized for efficiently elevating stone blocks to greater heights.
Measurement and alignment tools, such as plumb bobs and leveling instruments, represented another crucial mechanical interface. These instruments guaranteed the precision and alignment of architectural elements. The interfaces here were about meticulous calibration, ensuring the constructions were grand in scale and accuracy.
In the advanced stages of pyramid building, large wooden cranes with multi-operator capabilities emerged as essential mechanical interfaces. While less sophisticated than contemporary cranes, these wooden structures played a pivotal role in hoisting the heaviest stone blocks, marking the gradual evolution of construction technology.
The ancient Egyptians’ architectural feats were a testament to their mastery of mechanical interfaces. Their constructions, driven by various ingenious mechanical tools and systems, underscored their profound understanding of mechanics and engineering principles. To achieve these extraordinary accomplishments, the interfaces for their tools and machines had to be usable and scalable for thousands of workers over many years. Their interfaces tended to be more like a screwdriver than an electric drill, with direct action by the user applied to the task at hand and the interfaces (such as levers) acting to amplify human effort.
Water wheels and windmills: harnessing nature’s power
Water wheels and windmills, pre-industrial power sources, exemplify the art of turning nature into a reliable energy interface. These mechanical marvels were diverse in design and highly adaptable, demonstrating the usability lesson of versatility in interface design. These represent some of the first interfaces that enabled humans to convert energy from natural phenomena into mechanical energy to perform various tasks.
Hydropower interfaces
Pre-industrial water wheels, ingenious devices for harnessing the energy of flowing water, featured diverse interfaces tailored to the needs and conditions of different continents. These interfaces facilitated water flow regulation, enabling the wheels to perform various tasks.
One universal interface in water wheel design was the flow control mechanism, typically managed through sluice gates or similar devices. Operators could adjust the flow rate to control the wheel’s speed and power output. The position of these sluice gates was typically controlled by a lever or a hand crank, allowing for manual adjustment of water flow. Operators relied on visual feedback to gauge a water wheel’s performance. The speed and rotation of the wheel offered visual cues on the effectiveness of water flow control.
In Europe, two notable water wheel designs were the overshot water wheel, where water was directed onto the top of the wheel, and the breastshot water wheel, which received water at mid-height. In both cases, operators regulated the water flow using sluice gates, and the force of the water on the wheel’s paddles generated rotational energy for tasks like grain grinding.
In Asia, the sakia featured horizontal wheels turned by animals walking in circles. Animal operators adjusted the rotation speed and direction by using reins. On the other hand, the noria used a chain or belt to scoop up and transfer water, with rotation typically powered by animal or human labor. Zhou Daguan (1266–1346) was a Chinese diplomat who wrote “The Customs of Cambodia,” an account of his travels in Southeast Asia. His observations included descriptions of advanced mechanical water management systems derived from Sakia, Noria, and machines with gears.
Gears are not from the Industrial Age but are an ancient invention. By the 4th century BCE, various gears were used in mechanical water wheels across much of East and Southeast Asia. Around the same time, the Greek philosopher Democritus described gears and their applications, and their use began to appear across the Mediterranean.
In Africa, the bucket chain pump (a type of gear system) used a manual interface, with human or animal power turning a crank or handle to lift water from a lower source to a higher location. Materials from various places and ecosystems were easily adapted to this apparatus. This crank-and-pulley system employed ingenious handle designs to decrease human effort and increase comfort.
The physical properties of water could also be used to measure time. Examples of water clocks trace back to ancient Egypt, the Middle East, and China. However, we will examine two examples of their ingenuity in interface design.
Al-Jazari (1136–1206), an Arab scientist and polymath, invented a highly sophisticated timekeeping device known as the al-Bayt al-Sa’ia or “Castle Clock.” It displayed the time through a combination of visual and mechanical elements. The clock featured a series of figurines that moved in response to water flow, creating an intricate visual display. As the water flowed through the clock, it would fill containers and trigger various mechanisms when reaching certain levels. For example, one container might release a floating ball, and as the ball floated to a specific position, it indicated the hour. Other markers, such as floating vessels or figurines, indicated the minutes. The water level within the containers was observed against a calibrated scale, enabling users to read the time. The Castle Clock not only provided accurate timekeeping but also offered an impressive visual spectacle. Professor Salim T. S. Al-Hassani provides an excellent analysis of how Al-Jazari’s water clock functioned.
Jang Yeong-sil (1390–1442), a Korean scientist famous for creating many mechanical inventions, developed a water clock called the “Jagyeokru.” This remarkable timekeeping device displayed the time through a simple yet effective system. The Jagyeokru utilized a series of small containers or bowls that would fill with water consistently. These containers were arranged in a circular pattern, each representing a unit of time. As the water filled each container, they tipped or overflowed, creating a subtle but perceptible sound. Users would observe the sequence of container movements and listen for the sounds to determine the time. The Jagyeokru did not have a visual scale but relied on the auditory cues provided by the water-filled containers, making it a unique and highly innovative timekeeping device.
Al-Jazari and Jang Yeong-sil designed water clocks beyond mere timekeeping; they incorporated elements of engineering, mechanics, and aesthetics to create innovative and engaging displays of time. Al-Jazari’s Castle Clock was renowned for its intricate mechanical figurines. At the same time, Jang Yeong-sil’s Jagyeokru relied on the auditory feedback of moving water containers, reflecting their distinctive approaches to interface design and interaction feedback loops with time measurement.
Wind power interfaces
Pre-industrial windmills were ingenious machines with various mechanical interfaces that enabled them to harness the wind’s power for many purposes. In Europe, windmills were equipped with a tail vane, which could be manually adjusted to align the windmill blades with the wind, ensuring maximum energy capture. A straightforward brake mechanism, typically controlled by a lever or rope, would be engaged to halt the windmill’s operation in high winds or during periods of inactivity. In some designs, a gear and shaft system featured a handle that operators could turn to engage or disengage the grinding stones or other machinery connected to the windmill, initiating or halting the milling process. Throughout these processes, operators relied on visual observation to monitor the tail vane’s orientation and the windmill blades’ rotation, ensuring optimal functionality.
These user interfaces were predominantly manual, requiring physical effort and close observation by the operator. The user’s judgment and experience were crucial in operating windmills effectively, and the interfaces were integral to the machinery and the architecture.
In Asia, windmill designs varied widely to adapt to regional needs and environmental conditions. Panemone windmills, also known as vertical axis windmills, were one of the prominent designs. Unlike other windmill types, panemone windmills operate passively, responding to the prevailing wind direction and strength with minimal direct operator control. Their design consisted of a central vertical axis with horizontal blades radiating outward. When the wind blew, the force of the wind caused the blades to rotate around this central axis, generating mechanical power. The passive operation made panemone windmills particularly well-suited for tasks such as pumping water, as they could efficiently harness the wind’s energy to perform work without the need for constant manual adjustments.
On the other hand, norias represented a different class of machinery, primarily used for water lifting in regions with irrigation needs. Norias were vertical-axis water wheels equipped with buckets or containers. The wheel’s rotation was driven by the water flow, and operators managed the system by adjusting water intake. This was achieved by manipulating sluice gates and other water control mechanisms regulating the water directed to the wheel. By manipulating these control mechanisms, operators could control the rotation speed and direction of the noria, ensuring the efficient lifting of water for irrigation, thus enabling effective water management in arid or semi-arid regions.
Land reclamation, known as poldering, in the Netherlands traces back to the Middle Ages. With limited area for farming along the shore of the North Sea, the Dutch ingeniously employed wind power to reclaim land. At the heart of this process were the iconic Dutch windmills, featuring user interfaces allowing controlled land drainage. These windmills were strategically positioned along the coastal dikes and equipped with manually operated tail vanes to adjust their orientation, ensuring they faced the prevailing winds. With a series of gears and shafts, mill operators could control the engagement and disengagement of the drainage system, making it possible to pump water out of low-lying areas into canals. The windmills facilitated land reclamation and acted as powerful land drainage mills, preventing the North Sea from inundating the newly acquired territories. This innovative use of wind power became the hallmark of Dutch engineering and played a pivotal role in shaping the Netherlands’ landscape, allowing the Dutch to thrive and cultivate fertile soil below sea level.
These pre-industrial windmill interfaces epitomize the innovation and adaptability of early mechanical engineering. They effectively harnessed wind energy for various purposes, from milling and water pumping to power generation. Although they may appear rudimentary by modern standards, these interfaces were highly functional and well-suited to the needs of their time.
The Chinese repeating crossbow
The Chinese repeating crossbow, also known as the Zhuge crossbow after the famed strategist Zhuge Liang of the Three Kingdoms period, though its invention predates him by centuries, is a unique advancement in ancient military technology. Its origins can be traced back to the 4th century BC during the Warring States period, marking it as one of the earliest forms of mechanical artillery. This innovative weapon combined the mechanics of a simple crossbow with the ability to shoot multiple bolts without reloading after each shot, a revolutionary feature for its time. Unlike its counterpart, the repeating crossbow utilized a magazine with several bolts and a lever mechanism to draw the string and load the bolts successively. This design allowed for a rapid rate of fire, significantly increasing the wielder’s firepower on the battlefield. Despite its relatively low range and power compared to the standard crossbow, the repeating crossbow was valued for its ease of use and the volume of fire it could produce, making it a formidable weapon in massed formations. Over the centuries, various Chinese dynasties refined and used its design extensively, illustrating its lasting impact.
Although the repeating crossbow was successfully deployed in specific military engagements, its relatively short range limited its tactical effectiveness on the battlefield. Consequently, it was found to be more commonly used as a self-defense weapon or for hunting than as a primary military armament. In these contexts, the repeating crossbow was often loaded with darts tipped with “tiger-killing” poison, enhancing its lethality for personal protection or taking down formidable game. This application shift underscores ancient technology’s adaptability to a range of uses beyond its initial military intent. The repeating crossbow’s ease of operation and its rapid rate of fire made it particularly valuable in scenarios where the range was less critical than the ability to deliver multiple, potent strikes swiftly. Thus, while its short range might have curtailed its deployment in open warfare, the repeating crossbow secured a lasting legacy in smaller-scale conflicts, hunting, and personal defense.
The evolution of the Chinese repeating crossbow embodies some of the earliest manifestations of interaction design, illustrating a profound understanding of user needs and usability long before these concepts were formally recognized. As a weapon of self-defense and military utility, its design evolution was driven by the imperative to effectively serve non-expert users and professional soldiers. This necessitated a focus on simplicity, reliability, and ease of use, ensuring that the weapon could be operated efficiently under combat stress or in the urgency of hunting and self-defense scenarios.
Over centuries, the repeating crossbow’s development showcases a remarkable iterative refinement process, a testament to ancient expertise in human factors and ergonomics. Design adjustments that enhanced its rate of fire reduced the physical strength required to operate it and improved its overall reliability, reflecting a deep engagement with the principles of interaction design. Each iteration aimed to optimize the user experience, making the weapon more accessible and effective for many users. This ancient innovation process highlights the enduring importance of user-centered design, demonstrating how functionality and usability have always been crucial to developing new tools and technologies.
Lessons
The pre-industrial origins of user interface design have left an indelible mark on the history of human civilization and helped explain the current state of the world. The simplicity and adaptability of machines like the lever, the innovation of the ancient Egyptians in constructing their architectural marvels, and the diversity and adaptability of water wheels and windmills underscore fundamental usability lessons. The Chinese repeating crossbow, an ancient innovation dating back to the 4th century BC, showcases early interaction design principles through its evolutionary adaptation for both military and civilian use, emphasizing user-friendliness and adaptability in its design to accommodate non-expert users and professionals with its rapid-fire capability and iterations for enhanced usability.
These lessons include the importance of intuitive and accessible interfaces, adaptability to user needs and environmental conditions, and the value of training and expertise in achieving efficient machine operation. Modern user interface designers can draw inspiration from these pre-industrial marvels, recognizing that the fundamental usability principles remain timeless and relevant, bridging the gap between the ancient and the contemporary. As we continue to develop advanced technology, the legacy of our pre-industrial ancestors reminds us of the power of simplicity, adaptability, and thoughtful design in creating interfaces that empower users and transform the world.
References
Emilio Bautista, Marco Ceccarelli, Javier Echávarri Otero, José Luis Muñoz Sanz. A Brief Illustrated History of Machines and Mechanisms. Springer Press, 2010.
Salim Al-Hassani. “Al-Jazari’s Castle Water Clock: Analysis of its Components and Functioning.” Muslim Heritage, March 13, 2008. https://muslimheritage.com/al-jazaris-castle-water-clock/
Hong-Se Yan. Reconstruction Designs of Lost Ancient Chinese Machinery. Springer Press, 2007.
