Origins of the computer keyboard: The Sholes & Glidden Type Writer
In the latter half of the 19th century, a technological marvel emerged that would transform the way people communicated, documented their thoughts, and conducted business. This revolutionary invention, the Sholes & Glidden Type Writer, marked the birth of the modern typewriter and became the foundation for countless innovations in written communication. The Sholes & Glidden Type Writer, which began production in late 1873, was a groundbreaking development that altered the course of history, changing the way people worked, wrote, and connected with one another.
Before the Sholes & Glidden Type Writer came into existence, writing was predominantly a handwritten affair. The process was slow, laborious, and often imprecise, and it constrained the flow of information and business correspondence. This challenge led to the quest for a more efficient and standardized means of producing written documents.
Several inventors contributed to the evolution of typewriters. In 1714, Henry Mill patented a machine for transcribing letters, and in the early 19th century, Pellegrino Turri created a typewriting device to help his blind friend, Countess Carolina Fantoni da Fivizzano. Still, these early attempts were not widely adopted or commercialized.
The breakthrough in typewriter technology occurred with the collaboration of three individuals: Christopher Latham Sholes, Samuel Soule, and Carlos Glidden. Sholes, a newspaper editor, and Soule, a printer, sought to create a machine that would expedite the printing process and increase the legibility of documents. In the early 1860s, they began working on their invention.
In 1867, Carlos Glidden, an amateur inventor and friend of Sholes, joined the project. The trio developed the prototype of the Sholes & Glidden Type Writer, which featured a novel design with a keyboard that resembled today’s QWERTY layout. This layout was specifically designed to address a common problem of early typewriters: the jamming of typebars when pressing common letter pairs in rapid succession. By spacing out frequently used letters, such as “e” and “r,” the QWERTY keyboard layout prevented jamming.
Sholes patented their design in 1868, and in 1873, the Remington Company, known for manufacturing firearms, began production of the Sholes & Glidden Type Writer, which soon became popularly known as the “Remington №1.” The first commercial typewriter was born, and its production marked the beginning of a transformative era in communication.
How the typewriter worked
The Sholes & Glidden Type Writer was a marvel of engineering for its time. It operated on a simple yet effective mechanism. The user pressed a key on the keyboard, and a typebar with the corresponding letter moved upward. At the top of its travel, the typebar struck an inked ribbon, transferring ink to the paper. The paper was held on a carriage that could be moved horizontally with a lever, allowing the user to position the paper for each character.
The Sholes & Glidden Type Writer had a shift key, enabling the user to switch between uppercase and lowercase characters. It also featured a platen, a roller that held the paper against the typebars, ensuring a consistent impression. Once a line of text was completed, the user manually advanced the paper using a crank.
Human-Machine Interaction
The human-machine interaction of the Sholes & Glidden Type Writer marked a significant departure from traditional writing methods. Users had to adapt to this new mechanical companion, creating a unique interaction dynamic. Typists became skilled operators, mastering the QWERTY keyboard and developing a rhythmic touch to maximize typing speed. Unlike the free-flowing nature of handwriting, typewriting required precision and coordination, demanding that users press keys with a certain force and timing to produce legible text. This interaction was characterized by a tactile connection between the typist and the machine, as each keystroke triggered a mechanical response, including the movement of typebars and the striking of inked ribbons. As a result, typists developed a physical bond with the typewriter, mastering its operation to become efficient and proficient in their work.
Furthermore, the Sholes & Glidden Type Writer’s interaction with its users had a transformative effect on the professional landscape, especially for clerical and administrative workers. The machine offered a consistent and standardized method of producing documents, enabling clerks and secretaries to create clear, uniform records. This interaction between human and machine empowered individuals to perform their tasks with greater accuracy and efficiency. As typists became more proficient, their interaction with the typewriter evolved into a harmonious partnership, enhancing the quality and speed of written communication. This dynamic laid the groundwork for future innovations in human-machine interaction and was a precursor to the way modern computer keyboards and interfaces are designed to optimize user experience.
Early usability testing and iterative design
Although terms such as usability, user testing, and interaction design were not in use in the mid-nineteenth century, Sholes understood the importance of testing and iterative design. Hundreds of prototypes were hand-made and tested, and for field testing Sholes formed a collaboration with a Charles Edward Weller, an experienced journalist and early innovator of court stenography. Weller played a crucial role in the usability testing and iterative design of the first Sholes & Glidden Type Writers, and became one of the first proficient typists.
Weller’s expertise and careful documentation was invaluable in assessing the performance and user experience of the early typewriters. He meticulously documented his observations, identifying both the strengths and shortcomings of every feature of the machine. His detailed reports, sent regularly to Sholes, provided critical insights that informed the iterative design process. Weller’s feedback helped address key issues such as the arrangement of the keys, the mechanical reliability, and the overall ergonomics of the device, ensuring that it met the practical needs of its users.
One of the earliest prototypes developed by Sholes featured a keyboard layout similar to a piano, with two rows of keys arranged alphabetically. This design choice was intuitive, drawing on the familiarity of a piano’s layout to facilitate learning and use. However, this arrangement led to mechanical arms’ clashing and jamming, a significant obstacle in the device’s usability. The team’s realization that ease of learning was secondary to the machine’s functional reliability marked a pivotal moment in the typewriter’s development.
The introduction of the QWERTY layout, while initially aimed at reducing jamming, also reflected an early understanding of efficiency in design. Sholes and his team meticulously observed which letters were most frequently used together and arranged the keys in such a way as to minimize jamming, inadvertently laying the foundation for typing efficiency. This attention to the interaction between human behavior and mechanical design is a testament to Sholes’s innovative approach to problem-solving.
An often-overlooked contribution by Sholes is the invention of the shift key, which allowed typists to switch between lower and upper case letters, significantly expanding the typewriter’s functionality without complicating its design. This innovation showcased Sholes’s ability to integrate additional features into the typewriter while maintaining usability, a principle that remains central to interaction design today.
Weller’s contributions extended beyond mere technical evaluations; he was instrumental in suggesting design improvements that enhanced the typewriter’s functionality and usability. His firsthand experience with the machine allowed him to offer practical solutions to the challenges he encountered, which Sholes and his team could then implement and test in subsequent prototypes. Weller’s thorough and systematic approach to usability testing ensured that each iteration of the Sholes & Glidden Type Writer was progressively more refined and user-friendly. His collaborative efforts with Sholes were crucial in transforming the typewriter from a novel invention into a practical and efficient tool, laying the foundation for the modern typewriting industry. That attention to detail and relentless iterative design helps explain why in the West we still use the same keyboard design on all our computers, including virtual versions of Sholes’ keyboard on our phones and tablets.
Impact on society
The Sholes & Glidden Type Writer revolutionized the way people worked and communicated. It dramatically increased the speed and efficiency of producing documents, making it possible to type quickly and accurately. This advancement had a profound impact on various aspects of society, including business, government, journalism, and personal correspondence.
Businesses, in particular, benefitted immensely from the typewriter. It streamlined office work, making record-keeping and correspondence more efficient. The typewriter became an indispensable tool for clerks, secretaries, and stenographers, allowing them to produce neat, professional-looking documents.
The typewriter became an essential tool for professional writers, changing how they worked and produced their texts. It made writing faster, helping novelists, poets, and journalists focus on their work. Famous writers who loved their typewriters include Mark Twain, whose “Life on the Mississippi” was one of the first novels ever written on a typewriter (a Remmington №2); Ernest Hemingway, who wrote most of his novels on an Underwood Standard Portable; and Agatha Christie, who preferred a Corona Portable. These writers used typewriters because they were fast, reliable, and could keep up with their busy writing schedules, making them a key part of the literary world.
The invention of typewriters in the late 19th century also created significant opportunities for women in the workforce, marking a pivotal shift in employment patterns and societal roles. As typewriters became more prevalent in offices, the demand for skilled typists surged. Women, who were often seen as possessing the dexterity and attention to detail suited for typing, began to fill these positions in large numbers. This shift not only provided women with a new avenue for employment but also allowed them to enter the business world, gaining financial independence and professional experience. The typewriter thus became a symbol of modern office work and played a crucial role in integrating women into the professional workforce.
The proliferation of typewriters and the subsequent employment of women in clerical roles also fueled the women’s rights movements of the time. As women gained a foothold in the workplace, they started advocating for better working conditions, fair wages, and the right to vote. The visibility and economic contributions of women in offices challenged traditional gender roles and demonstrated their capabilities beyond domestic spheres. This newfound empowerment helped to galvanize support for broader social and political reforms, contributing to the momentum of the women’s suffrage movement. In this way, the typewriter not only transformed business practices but also became an instrument of social change, helping to advance the cause of women’s rights and gender equality.
Legacy
The Sholes & Glidden Type Writer, produced by the Remington Company in late 1873, marked a significant turning point in the history of written communication. It was the first commercially successful typewriter, and its innovative QWERTY keyboard layout set the standard for typewriters that followed. This remarkable invention transformed the way people worked, wrote, and connected, with lasting effects on business, government, and society as a whole. The Sholes & Glidden Type Writer paved the way for the modern typewriter and, subsequently, the computer keyboard, making it an essential milestone in the evolution of interaction design. Its human-centered design and mechanical workings laid the foundation for a new era of written expression and documentation, and introduced an interface that would be central to the personal computing revolution in the latter part of the twentieth century.
Sources
- Weil, Peter and Robert, Paul. Typewriter: A Celebration of the Ultimate Writing Machine. New York, NY: Union Square & Co., 2016.
- Weller, Charles Edward. The Early History of the Typewriter. Classic Reprint, 1918.
- Foulke, Arthur Toye. Mr. Typewriter: A Biography of Christopher Latham Sholes. Christopher Publishing House, London, UK, 1961.
- Hoke, Donald. “The Woman and the Typewriter: A Case Study in Technological Innovation and Social Change.” Business and Economic History, vol. 8, 1979, pp. 76–88. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23702593. Accessed 12 July 2024.
- Connolly, Hannah. Holding The Keys — How The Typewriter Shaped The Workplace For Women. Stack World, August 6 2021. https://www.thestack.world/news/society/people/holding-the-keys-how-the-typewriter-shaped-the-workplace-for-women-1628258839918
